Examining disparities in cardiovascular disease prevention strategies and incidence rates between urban and rural populations: insights from Kazakhstan.

Kazakhstan is experiencing a high burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD), and the country has implemented a range of strategies aimed at controlling CVD. The study aims to conduct a content analysis of the policies implemented in the country and augment it with an analysis of official statistics over a 15-year period, from 2006 to 2020. The study also includes comparisons of incidence rates between urban and rural areas. A comprehensive search was conducted to identify policy documents that regulate the provision of primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Additionally, official data on the incidence of arterial hypertension, ischemic heart disease, acute myocardial infarction, and cerebrovascular disease were extracted from official statistics, disaggregated by urban and rural areas. Forecast modeling was utilized to project disease incidences up to 2030. The study reveals that Kazakhstan primarily focuses on tertiary prevention of cardiovascular diseases, with less attention given to secondary prevention, and primary prevention is virtually non-existent. In general, screening for arterial hypertension appears to be more successful than for ischemic heart disease. The incidence of arterial hypertension has increased threefold for urban residents and 1.7-fold for rural residents. In urban areas, residents saw a twofold increase in ischemic heart disease incidence, while it remained the same in rural areas. The findings of this study have practical implications for decision-makers, who can use the results to enhance the effectiveness of existing CVD prevention strategies.

Combating planktonic and biofilm growth of Serratia marcescens by repurposing ebselen / Combatir el crecimiento planctónico y de biopelículas de Serratia marcescens mediante la reutilización de ebselen

Aim of the study: The rising instances of multidrug-resistant pathogens are rapidly evolving into a global healthcare crisis. Identifying new ways of synthesis of antibiotics is both time-consuming and expensive. Repurposing existing drugs for the treatment of such antimicrobial-resistant pathogens has also been explored. Methods and results: In the current study, ebselen was screened for antibacterial and antibiofilm activity against Serratia marcescens. Various antibacterial studies such as minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), time-kill curves, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) quantification, and colony-forming unit assays were performed. The antibiofilm potential was assayed by biofilm inhibition, cell surface hydrophobicity assay, eradication, quantification of extracellular DNA (eDNA), and extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) layer and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis were performed. Anti-quorum sensing assay was validated by quantifying the virulence factors production. Further molecular docking of ebselen with two quorum sensing (QS) specific proteins was also carried out. Antibacterial susceptibility tests showed potent antimicrobial activity of ebselen against S. marcescens with MIC50 of 14 μg/mL. Ebselen’s ability to disturb the redox environment by inducing significant ROS generation led to bacterial death. It also showed concentration-dependent bactericidal activity as indicated by reduced bacterial growth and colony-forming unit propagation. Ebselen was also found to prevent biofilm attachment by altering the cell surface hydrophobicity while also being effective against preformed biofilms as validated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Additionally, ebselen showed reduced virulence factors like urease enzyme activity and prodigiosin pigment production indicating its promising anti-quorum sensing potential...(AU)

TB related stigma and gender disparity among unaffected population in central Kerala, a survey.

BACKGROUND: TB continues to ravage high burden countries despite aggressive TB control measures. Poverty and adverse socioeconomic and cultural factors play a significant role in stigmatization, causing delayed health care seeking, non-compliance to treatment and spread of disease in the community. Women are more vulnerable to stigmatization, posing the risk of gender inequality in health care. The objectives of this study were to ascertain the degree of stigmatization and gender disparity in TB related stigma in the community. METHODS: Study was conducted among TB unaffected persons, using consecutive sampling from bystanders of patients attending the hospital for diseases other than TB. Closed structured questionnaire was used for measuring socio-demographic, knowledge and stigma variables. Stigma scoring was done using TB vignette. RESULTS: Majority subjects (119 males and 102 females) were from rural area and low socioeconomic status; more than 60% of males and females having college education. Half the subjects answered more than half the TB knowledge questions correctly. Knowledge score was significantly lower among females compared with males (p < 0.002) despite high literacy. Overall stigma scoring was low (mean score = 15.9; total 75). Stigma was higher among females compared with males (p < 0.002); more profound among females receiving female vignettes (Chi-square = 14.1, p < 0.0001). The association was significant even after adjusting for co-variables (OR = 3.323, P = 0.005). Low knowledge showed minimal (statistically insignificant) association with stigma. CONCLUSIONS: Perceived stigma though low, was more among females and much higher with female vignette, indicating significant gender disparity in stigma towards TB.

Prevalence of Smoking Various Tobacco Types in the Kazakhstani Adult Population in 2021: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Tobacco use was the second-leading risk factor for death, accounting for 15.4% of total deaths in 2019. In 2019, 20.4% (2.7 million) of the adult population in Kazakhstan, 36.5% of men, and 6.0% of women smoked tobacco. A cross-sectional study of a random sample (n = 1201) was conducted between October and December 2021 in accordance with the STEPwise approach. The tobacco-use questions were focused on current and previous smoking status, initiation and duration of smoking, amount of tobacco use, exposure to secondhand smoke, and information related to quitting smoking. From 20.8% of smokers, 93.8% of men and 80.2% of women use tobacco products daily, χ2 = 10.983, p-score < 0.001. The earliest initiation of smoking was 6 years old. The prevalence of smoking tobacco products in Kazakhstan is 20.8%, which means that every fifth adult smokes. In addition, the proportion of smokers among men was 38.5%, and among women, it was 10.1%. A total of 93.8% of men and 80.2% of women smoked daily. The role of healthcare professionals in smoking prevention is very low, and only 16.9% of respondents have been advised to quit smoking in the last 12 months. New interventions for tobacco smoking prevention are urgently needed in Kazakhstan.

Combating planktonic and biofilm growth of Serratia marcescens by repurposing ebselen.

AIM OF THE STUDY: The rising instances of multidrug-resistant pathogens are rapidly evolving into a global healthcare crisis. Identifying new ways of synthesis of antibiotics is both time-consuming and expensive. Repurposing existing drugs for the treatment of such antimicrobial-resistant pathogens has also been explored. METHODS AND RESULTS: In the current study, ebselen was screened for antibacterial and antibiofilm activity against Serratia marcescens. Various antibacterial studies such as minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), time-kill curves, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) quantification, and colony-forming unit assays were performed. The antibiofilm potential was assayed by biofilm inhibition, cell surface hydrophobicity assay, eradication, quantification of extracellular DNA (eDNA), and extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) layer and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis were performed. Anti-quorum sensing assay was validated by quantifying the virulence factors production. Further molecular docking of ebselen with two quorum sensing (QS) specific proteins was also carried out. Antibacterial susceptibility tests showed potent antimicrobial activity of ebselen against S. marcescens with MIC50 of 14 µg/mL. Ebselen's ability to disturb the redox environment by inducing significant ROS generation led to bacterial death. It also showed concentration-dependent bactericidal activity as indicated by reduced bacterial growth and colony-forming unit propagation. Ebselen was also found to prevent biofilm attachment by altering the cell surface hydrophobicity while also being effective against preformed biofilms as validated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Additionally, ebselen showed reduced virulence factors like urease enzyme activity and prodigiosin pigment production indicating its promising anti-quorum sensing potential. Molecular docking analysis validated the strong binding of ebselen with QS-specific proteins (1Joe and PigG) with binding energies of - 6.6 and - 8.1kj/mol through hydrogen bonds and aromatic interactions. These results show that ebselen has potent antibiofilm potential that can be explored to identify treatment against bacterial infections.

Elucidating the anti-biofilm and anti-quorum sensing potential of selenocystine against respiratory tract infections causing bacteria: in vitro and in silico studies.

Bacteria are increasingly relying on biofilms to develop resistance to antibiotics thereby resulting in their failure in treating many infections. In spite of continuous research on many synthetic and natural compounds, ideal anti-biofilm molecule is still not found thereby warranting search for new class of molecules. The current study focuses on exploring anti-biofilm potential of selenocystine against respiratory tract infection (RTI)-causing bacteria. Anti-bacterial and anti-biofilm assays demonstrated that selenocystine inhibits the growth of bacteria in their planktonic state, and formation of biofilms while eradicating preformed-biofilm effectively. Selenocystine at a MIC50 as low as 42 and 28 µg/mL effectively inhibited the growth of Klebsiella pneumonia and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The antibacterial effect is further reconfirmed by agar cup diffusion assay and growth-kill assay. Selenocystine showed 30-60% inhibition of biofilm formation in K. pneumonia, and 44-70% in P. aeruginosa respectively. It also distorted the preformed-biofilms by degrading the eDNA component of the Extracellular Polymeric Substance matrix. Molecular docking studies of selenocystine with quorum sensing specific proteins clearly showed that through the carboxylic acid moiety it interacts and inhibits the protein function, thereby confirming its anti-biofilm potential. With further validation selenocystine can be explored as a potential candidate for the treatment of RTIs.

Biotin Interference in Point of Care HIV Immunoassay.

The use of high concentrations of biotin as a dietary supplement to improve hair, skin, and nail quality has increased in the United States over the past few years. High concentrations of biotin have been shown to interfere with some diagnostic assays that use streptavidin-biotin interactions as one of the steps in the assay. The objective of this report is to evaluate potential biotin interference on the analytical and clinical sensitivity of a point of care (POC) antigen-antibody combo HIV-1 assay. We spiked biotin at concentrations ranging from 12.5 to 400 ng/mL into serum and plasma containing HIV-1 subtype B p24 antigen derived from culture supernatant. The p24 antigen was present in the matrices at 30 pg/mL. Fifty microliters of each sample was applied to Alere Determine HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab combo assay strips in duplicate and results were read by eye after 20 to 30 min. Biotin interfered with detection of HIV-1 p24 in serum and plasma. HIV-1 p24 was not detected at 30 pg/mL p24 when biotin was present at 200 ng/mL concentration. Our study demonstrated that elevated levels of biotin in samples may interfere with POC assays. It is important to consider biotin supplements as potential sources of falsely increased or decreased test results, especially in cases wherein supplementation cannot be ruled out.

Electrostatically bound lanreotide peptide - gold nanoparticle conjugates for enhanced uptake in SSTR2-positive cancer cells.

Lanreotide peptide (LP) has high affinity to somatostatin receptors like SSTR2 and is commonly used in the treatment of neuro-endocrine tumors. The main objective of this study is to target gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) towards SSTR2-positive cancer cells using lanreotide peptide (LP) as the targeting agent for enhanced tumor uptake and antitumor activity. pH mediated changes in the surface potential of LP and AuNP is used to prepare electrostatically bound AuNP-LP complexes. AuNP-LP complex formation was demonstrated by UV-Visible spectroscopy, surface potential, dynamic light scattering (DLS), small angle X-ray scattering and HR-TEM. Confocal microscopy and flow cytometric studies show that AuNP-LP complex has higher cellular uptake in SSTR2 expressed cancer cells (MCF-7 and AR42J) than in CHO cells. The enhanced cellular uptake of LP coated AuNPs lead to ~1.5 to 2-fold GSH depletion and enhanced ROS generation in MCF-7 cells. The preferential cytotoxicity of the AuNP-LP complex towards MCF-7 and AR42J cells, as revealed by MTT assay, is consistent with the increased cellular uptake. Our studies demonstrate that LP coated AuNP can be used as an effective platform to selectively target SSTR2 positive cancer cells for combination therapy approaches involving gold nanoparticles.

Glutamic acid-coated Fe3O4 nanoparticles for tumor-targeted imaging and therapeutics.

We have developed surface functionalised Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) based system that can be used for tumor-targeted multimodal therapies and MR imaging. Biocompatible, non-essential amino acid (glutamic acid) was introduced onto the surface of Fe3O4 MNPs to provide functional sites for binding of chemotherapeutic drugs. These glutamic acid-coated Fe3O4 MNPs (GAMNPs) exhibit good water-dispersibility, magnetic responsivity and pH dependent charge conversal feature. The magnetic core as well as organic shell of GAMNPs was characterized by XRD, TEM, DLS, FTIR, PPMS and UV-visible spectroscopy and zeta-potential analyzer etc. The broad spectrum anticancer drugs, doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX) and methotrexate (MTX) were electrostatically and covalently conjugated to the surface of GAMNPs, respectively for combination chemotherapy. These dual drugs loaded system (DOX-MTX-GAMNPs) shows pH dependent release behaviour of both the drugs and enhanced toxicity towards breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) as compared to their individual treatment. Fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometric analyses confirmed the successful uptake of drug loaded system into MCF-7 cell lines. Further MTX being analogue of folic acid, its co-delivery with DOX would help in internalization of both the drugs into MCF-7 cells. These GAMNPs also show good heating efficiency under AC magnetic field (Intrinsic loss power, ILP = 0.95 and 0.73 and 0.48 nHm2/Kg at Fe concentration of 0.5, 1 and 2 mg/ml, respectively) and transverse relaxivity (r2 = 152 mM-1 s-1) indicating their potential capability for hyperthermia therapy and MRI tracking. Furthermore, it has been observed that the combination of chemotherapeutic drugs and hyperthermia leads to an enhancement of cytotoxicity in MCF-7 cells.

Computational design and clinical demonstration of a copper nanocluster based universal immunosensor for sensitive diagnostics.

Nanoparticle based sensors are good alternatives for non-enzymatic sensing applications due to their high stability, superior photoluminescence, biocompatibility and ease of fabrication, with the only disadvantage being the cost of the synthesis process (owing to the expensive precursors and infrastructure). For the first time, we report the design of an immunosensor employing streptavidin conjugated copper nanocluster, developed at a much lower cost compared to other nanomaterials like noble metal nanoparticles and quantum dots. Using in silico tools, we have tried to establish the dynamics of conjugation of nanocluster to the streptavidin protein, based on EDC-NHS coupling. The computational simulations have successfully explained the crucial role played by the components of the immunosensor leading to an efficient design capable of high sensitivity. In order to demonstrate the functioning of the Copper Nanocluster ImmunoSensor (CuNIS), HIV-1 p24 biomarker test was chosen as the model assay. The immunosensor was able to achieve an analytical limit of detection of 23.8 pg mL-1 for HIV-1 p24 with a linear dynamic range of 27-1000 pg mL-1. When tested with clinical plasma samples, CuNIS based p24 assay showed 100% specificity towards HIV-1 p24. With the capability of multiplexed detection and a cost of fabrication 100 times lower than that of the conventional metal nanoclusters, CuNIS has the potential to be an essential low-cost diagnostic tool in resource-limited settings.

Retraction Note to: Mosquitocidal properties of Bacillus species isolated from mangroves of Vellar estuary, Southeast coast of India.

[This retracts the article DOI: 10.1007/s12639-013-0371-9.].

Cross-Subtype Detection of HIV-1 Capsid p24 Antigen Using a Sensitive Europium Nanoparticle Assay.

Accurate and early detection of diverse HIV-1 subtypes using currently available p24 antigen assays have been a major challenge. We report the development of a sensitive time resolved fluorescence (TRF) europium nanoparticle immuno assay for cross subtype detection of p24 antigen using broadly cross-reactive antibodies. Several antibodies were tested for optimal reactivity with antigens of diverse HIV-1 subtypes and circulating recombinant forms. We tested HIV strains using this assay for sensitivity and quantification ability at the pico-gram per millilter level. We identified two broadly cross-reactive HIV-1 p24 antibodies C65690M and ANT-152, which detected all strains of HIV tested. These two antibodies also yielded a better signal to cutoff ratio for the same amount of antigen tested in comparison to a commercial assay. Using an appropriate combination of C65690M and ANT-152 p24 antibodies capable of detecting all HIV types and highly sensitive TRF-based europium nano particle assay platform, we developed a sensitive p24 antigen assay that can detect HIV infection of all HIV subtypes and may be useful in early detection.

Sub-picogram level sensitivity in HIV diagnostics achieved with the europium nanoparticle immunoassay through metal enhanced fluorescence.

We describe a novel application of Metal Enhanced Fluorescence (MEF) to immunoassays for boosting the signal through a single step modification of the europium nanoparticle based immunoassay with addition of gold nanoparticles. The new limit of detection was found to be 0.19 pg mL-1 which was much lower than that of the conventional assay which was around 1.80 pg mL-1, thus achieving a ten-fold increase in the limit of detection of p24, an early biomarker for HIV infections. Real world applications of the new technique were demonstrated with the commercially available Perkin Elmer Alliance kits greatly improving their sensitivity limits, thus demonstrating that the sensitivity and reproducibility of this approach are as good as those of high-end, sensitive immunoassays. The results of this study pave the way for the development of a highly sensitive screening protocol based on any fluorescent nanoparticle based immunoassay.

Streptavidin-conjugated gold nanoclusters as ultrasensitive fluorescent sensors for early diagnosis of HIV infection.

We have engineered streptavidin-labeled fluorescent gold nanoclusters to develop a gold nanocluster immunoassay (GNCIA) for the early and sensitive detection of HIV infection. We performed computational simulations on the mechanism of interaction between the nanoclusters and the streptavidin protein via in silico studies and showed that gold nanoclusters enhance the binding to the protein, by enhancing interaction between the Au atoms and the specific active site residues, compared to other metal nanoclusters. We also evaluated the role of glutathione conjugation in binding to gold nanoclusters with streptavidin. As proof of concept, GNCIA achieved a sensitivity limit of detection of HIV-1 p24 antigen in clinical specimens of 5 pg/ml, with a detection range up to1000 pg/ml in a linear dose-dependent manner. GNCIA demonstrated a threefold higher sensitivity and specificity compared to enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of HIV p24 antigen. The specificity of the immunoassay was 100% when tested with plasma samples negative for HIV-1 p24 antigen and positive for viruses such as hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and dengue. GNCIA could be developed into a universal labeling technology using the relevant capture and detector antibodies for the specific detection of antigens of various pathogens in the future.

Femtogram Level Sensitivity achieved by Surface Engineered Silica Nanoparticles in the Early Detection of HIV Infection.

We have engineered streptavidin labelled Europium doped fluorescent silica nanoparticles which significantly increased sensitivity without compromising the specificity of the immunoassay. As a proof of concept, a time resolved fluorescence based sandwich immunoassay was developed to detect HIV-1 p24 antigen in clinical specimens. The detection range of the silica nanoparticle based immunoassay (SNIA) was found to be between 0.02 to 500 pg/mL in a linear dose dependent manner. SNIA offers 1000 fold enhancement over conventional colorimetric ELISA. Testing of plasma samples that were HIV negative showed no false positive results in the detection of HIV-1 p24 antigen. This highly sensitive p24 assay can help improve blood safety by reducing the antibody negative window period in blood donors in resource limited settings where nucleic acid testing is not practical or feasible. This technology can also be easily transferred to a lab-on-a-chip platform for use in resource limited settings and can also be easily adopted for the detection of other antigens.

Novel Time-Resolved Fluorescence Europium Nanoparticle Immunoassay for Detection of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Group O Viruses Using Microplate and Microchip Platforms.

Accurate detection and quantification of HIV-1 group O viruses have been challenging for currently available HIV assays. We have developed a novel time-resolved fluorescence (TRF) europium nanoparticle immunoassay for HIV-1 group O detection using a conventional microplate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a microchip platform. We screened several antibodies for optimal reactivity with several HIV-1 group O strains and identified antibodies that can detect all the strains of HIV-1 group O that were available for testing. The antibodies were used to develop a conventional ELISA format assay and an in-house developed europium nanoparticle-based assay for sensitivity. The method was evaluated on both microwell plate and microchip platforms. We identified two specific and sensitive antibodies among the six we screened. The antibodies, C65691 and ANT-152, were able to quantify 15 and detect all 17 group O viruses, respectively, as they were broadly cross-reactive with all HIV-1 group O strains and yielded better signals compared with other antibodies. We have developed a sensitive assay that reflects the actual viral load in group O samples by using an appropriate combination of p24 antibodies that enhance group O detection and a highly sensitive TRF-based europium nanoparticle for detection. The combination of ANT-152 and C65690M in the ratio 3:1 was able to give significantly higher signals in our europium-based assay compared with using any single antibody.

Mosquitocidal properties of Bacillus species isolated from mangroves of Vellar estuary, Southeast coast of India.

Samples collected from the mangroves of Vellar estuary yielded a mosquitocidal bacterium, whose secondary metabolites exhibited mosquito larvicidal and pupicidal activity. The bacterium was isolated using standard microbiological methods and identified using classical biochemical tests. The mosquitocidal bacterium was identified as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus thuringiensis, Bacillus sphaericus and Bacillus cereus. Mosquitocidal metabolite(s) was separated from the culture supernatant of the bacterium and its efficacy was against the larval and pupal stages of two different species of mosquitoes and determined in terms of LC50 and LC90. Mosquito larvicidal activity in terms of LC50 against Anopheleus stephensi and Aedes aegypti was 4.374 and 7.406 µl/ml and its pupicidal activity was 4.928 and 9.865 µl/ml, respectively. The present study proved that the mosquitocidal properties of the Bacillus species isolated from mangroves of Vellar estuary was evaluated as target species of mosquito vectors. This is an ideal eco-friendly approach for the vector control programs.

Genotypic prediction of tropism of highly diverse HIV-1 strains from Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: The use of CCR5 antagonists involves determination of HIV-1 tropism prior to initiation of treatment. HIV-1 tropism can be assessed either by phenotypic or genotypic methods. Genotypic methods are extensively used for tropism prediction. However, their validation in predicting tropism of viral isolates belonging to group M non-B subtypes remains challenging. In Cameroon, the genetic diversity of HIV-1 strains is the broadest reported worldwide. To facilitate the integration of CCR5 antagonists into clinical practice in this region, there is a need to evaluate the performance of genotypic methods for predicting tropism of highly diverse group M HIV-1 strains. METHODS: Tropism of diverse HIV-1 strains isolated from PBMCs from Cameroon was determined using the GHOST cell assay. Prediction, based on V3 sequences from matched plasma samples, was determined using bioinformatics algorithms and rules based on position 11/25 and net charge applied independently or combined according to Delobel's and Garrido's rules. Performance of genotypic methods was evaluated by comparing prediction generated with tropism assigned by the phenotypic assay. RESULTS: Specificity for predicting R5-tropic virus was high, ranging from 83.7% to 97.7% depending on the genotypic methods used. Sensitivity for X4-tropic viruses was fairly low, ranging from 33.3% to 50%. In our study, overall, genotypic methods were less able to accurately predict X4-tropic virus belonging to subtype CRF02_AG. In addition, it was found that of the methods we used the Garrido rule has the highest sensitivity rate of over 50% with a specificity of 93%. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrated that overall, genotypic methods were less sensitive for accurate prediction of HIV-1 tropism in settings where diverse HIV-1 strains co-circulate. Our data suggest that further optimization of genotypic methods is needed and that larger studies to determine their utility for tropism prediction of diverse HIV-1 strains may be warranted.

Development of a microchip Europium nanoparticle immunoassay for sensitive point-of-care HIV detection.

Rapid, sensitive and specific diagnostic assays play an indispensable role in determination of HIV infection stages and evaluation of efficacy of antiretroviral therapy. Recently, our laboratory developed a sensitive Europium nanoparticle-based microtiter-plate immunoassay capable of detecting target analytes at subpicogram per milliliter levels without the use of catalytic enzymes and signal amplification processes. Encouraged by its sensitivity and simplicity, we continued to miniaturize this assay to a microchip platform for the purpose of converting the benchtop assay technique to a point-of-care test. It was found that detection capability of the microchip platform could be readily improved using Europium nanoparticle probes. We were able to routinely detect 5 pg/mL (4.6 attomoles) of HIV-1 p24 antigen at a signal-to-blank ratio of 1.5, a sensitivity level reasonably close to that of microtiter-plate Europium nanoparticle assay. Meanwhile, use of the microchip platform effectively reduced sample/reagent consumption 4.5 fold and shortened total assay time 2 fold in comparison with microtiter plate assays. Complex matrix substance in plasma negatively affected the microchip assays and the effects could be minimized by diluting the samples before loading. With further improvements in sensitivity, reproducibility, usability, assay process simplification, and incorporation of portable time-resolved fluorescence reader, Europium nanoparticle immunoassay technology could be adapted to meet the challenges of point-of-care diagnosis of HIV or other health-threatening pathogens at bedside or in resource-limited settings.

Point of Care Technologies for HIV.

Effective prevention of HIV/AIDS requires early diagnosis, initiation of therapy, and regular plasma viral load monitoring of the infected individual. In addition, incidence estimation using accurate and sensitive assays is needed to facilitate HIV prevention efforts in the public health setting. Therefore, more affordable and accessible point-of-care (POC) technologies capable of providing early diagnosis, HIV viral load measurements, and CD4 counts in settings where HIV is most prevalent are needed to enable appropriate intervention strategies and ultimately stop transmission of the virus within these populations to achieve the future goal of an AIDS-free generation. This review discusses the available and emerging POC technologies for future application to these unmet public health needs.